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Monolithically and in situ integrated PbS infrared imagers

Published: 10/28/2026, 12:00 AM

Nature (2026) Cite this article Image sensors are critical components in artificial intelligence1,2,3, yet conventional approaches bond detector arrays to readout integrated circuits (ROICs), a process that increases complexity and cost4. The ideal alternative—growing the detector directly on the ROIC from solution using raw materials—has remained elusive owing to the difficulty in achieving electronic-grade films through a ROIC-compatible process5,6. Here, inspired by biomineralization principles7, we demonstrate monolithic in situ integration (MISI) of high-performance lead sulfide (PbS) photodetectors on ROICs by means of a room-temperature aqueous process. By regulating Pb–OH complexation and suppressing environmental perturbations, we achieve quasi-single-crystalline PbS films with excellent electronic properties (carrier density approximately 2 × 1015 cm−3, mobility 124 cm2 V−1 s−1) and wafer-scale, pixel-level uniformity. Through antimony doping, the resulting photodiodes exhibit a record specific detectivity of 4.4 × 1011 Jones at 2.5 µm, surpassing commercial InGaAs detectors8. We further fabricate a 640 × 512-pixel focal-plane array that captures clear infrared images and also integrate devices directly onto flexible ROICs. This solution-based MISI approach offers a scalable and transformative route for advanced optoelectronics and sensors. This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution Access Nature and 54 other Nature Portfolio journals Get Nature+, our best-value online-access subscription Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout All data are available in the main text or the Supplementary Information. Source data are provided with this paper. Zhang, X. et al. Atomic lift-off of epitaxial membranes for cooling-free infrared detection. Nature 641, 98–105 (2025). Article ADS CAS PubMed Google Scholar Zhu, J. et al. Low-thermal-budget synthesis of monolayer molybdenum disulfide for silicon back-end-of-line integration on a 200 mm platform. Nat. Nanotechnol. 18, 456–463 (2023).